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AFL Modelling Walkthrough

03. Modelling

These tutorials will walk you through how to construct your own basic AFL model, using publically available data. The output will be odds for each team to win, which will be shown on The Hub.

In this notebook we will walk you through modelling our AFL data to create predictions. We will train a variety of quick and easy models to get a feel of what works and what doesn't. We will then tune our hyperparameters so that we are ready to make week by week predictions.

Grabbing Our Dataset

First, we will import our required modules, as well as the prepare_afl_features function which we created in our afl_feature_creation script. This essentially creates some basic features for us so that we can get started on the modelling component.

# Import libraries
from afl_data_cleaning_v2 import *
import datetime
import pandas as pd
import numpy as np
from sklearn import svm, tree, linear_model, neighbors, naive_bayes, ensemble, discriminant_analysis, gaussian_process
# from xgboost import XGBClassifier
from sklearn.model_selection import StratifiedKFold, cross_val_score, GridSearchCV, train_test_split
from sklearn.linear_model import LogisticRegressionCV
from sklearn.feature_selection import RFECV
import seaborn as sns
from sklearn.preprocessing import OneHotEncoder, LabelEncoder, StandardScaler
from sklearn import feature_selection
from sklearn import metrics
from sklearn.linear_model import LogisticRegression, RidgeClassifier
from sklearn.ensemble import RandomForestClassifier
from sklearn.discriminant_analysis import LinearDiscriminantAnalysis
from sklearn.naive_bayes import GaussianNB
import warnings
warnings.filterwarnings('ignore')
import afl_feature_creation_v2
import afl_data_cleaning_v2

# Grab our feature DataFrame which we created in the previous tutorial
feature_df = afl_feature_creation_v2.prepare_afl_features()
afl_data = afl_data_cleaning_v2.prepare_afl_data()

feature_df.tail(3)
game home_team away_team date round venue season f_odds f_form_margin_btwn_teams f_form_past_5_btwn_teams f_odds_away f_elo_home f_elo_away f_I50_efficiency_home f_R50_efficiency_home f_I50_efficiency_away f_R50_efficiency_away f_goals_diff f_behinds_diff f_points_diff f_margin_diff f_opponent_goals_diff f_opponent_behinds_diff f_opponent_points_diff f_AF_diff f_B_diff f_BO_diff f_CCL_diff f_CG_diff f_CL_diff f_CM_diff f_CP_diff f_D_diff f_ED_diff f_FA_diff f_FF_diff f_G_diff f_GA_diff f_HB_diff f_HO_diff f_I50_diff f_ITC_diff f_K_diff f_M_diff f_MG_diff f_MI5_diff f_One.Percenters_diff f_R50_diff f_SC_diff f_SCL_diff f_SI_diff f_T_diff f_T5_diff f_TO_diff f_UP_diff f_current_odds_prob f_current_odds_prob_away
1628 15396 Brisbane West Coast 2018-08-26 23 Gabba 2018 3.442757 -49.2 0.0 2.094236 1279.963814 1622.200265 0.683604 0.691730 0.696822 0.709605 -0.190413 1.182699 0.040221 -13.621456 1.772577 3.026217 13.661677 -22.709485 2.424261 -4.848054 1.800473 5.051157 6.440524 -5.549630 -17.041838 27.543023 33.983159 4.459181 -3.213885 -0.428455 1.514474 42.646138 -7.141638 1.457375 -17.472537 -15.103115 8.001966 -383.083539 6.458915 7.275716 0.942863 44.461590 4.640136 13.180967 -15.704694 2.366444 -5.985843 38.195255 0.433501 0.569866
1629 15397 Melbourne GWS 2018-08-26 23 M.C.G. 2018 1.706488 -23.2 2.0 1.805565 1540.367850 1615.614668 0.667240 0.692632 0.684525 0.753783 2.056899 0.635785 12.977177 6.642811 1.443121 -2.324358 6.334366 147.281112 2.201404 -5.222254 3.250416 8.542475 -2.203571 3.559792 21.192530 33.737734 12.865653 -3.244066 -2.135243 4.100203 3.772200 48.425291 18.247107 13.349992 11.385136 -14.687556 5.052000 304.087088 11.062610 -6.686409 -16.414544 8.350924 -5.453961 12.407662 6.672628 -1.523915 13.075351 18.522113 0.661551 0.340379
1630 15398 St Kilda North Melbourne 2018-08-26 23 Docklands 2018 5.516150 -3.2 2.0 2.272313 1372.453734 1454.022032 0.730843 0.635819 0.697018 0.654991 -2.257517 1.223261 -12.321842 -19.923855 1.189755 0.463481 7.602012 27.891262 3.201137 4.754346 -1.881145 -3.924740 -0.528075 -8.045729 -20.584717 36.806235 39.615090 7.018240 -4.709732 -4.535660 -3.372912 23.194704 -18.042370 1.214353 -14.771187 13.611531 11.690647 -109.284521 -0.229945 12.384044 -4.625633 57.158576 1.353070 -1.533659 -6.646259 -3.489492 -15.416140 58.470456 0.284269 0.717566 
# Get the result and merge to the feature_df

match_results = (pd.read_csv("data/afl_match_results.csv")
                    .rename(columns={'Game': 'game'})
                    .assign(result=lambda df: df.apply(lambda row: 1 if row['Home.Points'] > row['Away.Points'] else 0, axis=1)))

# Merge result column to feature_df
feature_df = pd.merge(feature_df, match_results[['game', 'result']], on='game')

Creating a Training and Testing Set

So that we don't train our data on the data that we will later test our model on, we will create separate train and test sets. For this exercise we will use the 2018 season to test how our model performs, whilst the rest of the data can be used to train the model.

# Create our test and train sets from our afl DataFrame; drop the columns which leak the result, duplicates, and the advanced
# stats which don't have data until 2015

feature_columns = [col for col in feature_df if col.startswith('f_')]

# Create our test set
test_x = feature_df.loc[feature_df.season == 2018, ['game'] + feature_columns]
test_y = feature_df.loc[feature_df.season == 2018, 'result']

# Create our train set
X = feature_df.loc[feature_df.season != 2018, ['game'] + feature_columns]
y = feature_df.loc[feature_df.season != 2018, 'result']

# Scale features
scaler = StandardScaler()
X[feature_columns] = scaler.fit_transform(X[feature_columns])
test_x[feature_columns] = scaler.transform(test_x[feature_columns])

Using Cross Validation to Find The Best Algorithms

Now that we have our training set, we can run through a list of popular classifiers to determine which classifier is best for modelling our data. To do this we will create a function which uses Kfold cross-validation to find the 'best' algorithms, based on how accurate the algorithms' predictions are.

This function will take in a list of classifiers, which we will define below, as well as the training set and it's outcome, and output a DataFrame with the mean and std of the accuracy of each algorithm. Let's jump into it!

# Create a list of standard classifiers
classifiers = [
    #Ensemble Methods
    ensemble.AdaBoostClassifier(),
    ensemble.BaggingClassifier(),
    ensemble.ExtraTreesClassifier(),
    ensemble.GradientBoostingClassifier(),
    ensemble.RandomForestClassifier(),

    #Gaussian Processes
    gaussian_process.GaussianProcessClassifier(),

    #GLM
    linear_model.LogisticRegressionCV(),

    #Navies Bayes
    naive_bayes.BernoulliNB(),
    naive_bayes.GaussianNB(),

    #SVM
    svm.SVC(probability=True),
    svm.NuSVC(probability=True),

    #Discriminant Analysis
    discriminant_analysis.LinearDiscriminantAnalysis(),
    discriminant_analysis.QuadraticDiscriminantAnalysis(),

    #xgboost: http://xgboost.readthedocs.io/en/latest/model.html
#     XGBClassifier()    
]

# Define a functiom which finds the best algorithms for our modelling task
def find_best_algorithms(classifier_list, X, y):
    # This function is adapted from https://www.kaggle.com/yassineghouzam/titanic-top-4-with-ensemble-modeling
    # Cross validate model with Kfold stratified cross validation
    kfold = StratifiedKFold(n_splits=5)

    # Grab the cross validation scores for each algorithm
    cv_results = [cross_val_score(classifier, X, y, scoring = "neg_log_loss", cv = kfold) for classifier in classifier_list]
    cv_means = [cv_result.mean() * -1 for cv_result in cv_results]
    cv_std = [cv_result.std() for cv_result in cv_results]
    algorithm_names = [alg.__class__.__name__ for alg in classifiers]

    # Create a DataFrame of all the CV results
    cv_results = pd.DataFrame({
        "Mean Log Loss": cv_means,
        "Log Loss Std": cv_std,
        "Algorithm": algorithm_names
    })

    return cv_results.sort_values(by='Mean Log Loss').reset_index(drop=True)

best_algos = find_best_algorithms(classifiers, X, y)
best_algos
Mean Log Loss Log Loss Std Algorithm
0 0.539131 3.640578e-02 LogisticRegressionCV
1 0.551241 5.775685e-02 LinearDiscriminantAnalysis
2 0.630994 8.257481e-02 GradientBoostingClassifier
3 0.670041 9.205780e-03 AdaBoostClassifier
4 0.693147 2.360121e-08 GaussianProcessClassifier
5 0.712537 2.770864e-02 SVC
6 0.712896 2.440755e-02 NuSVC
7 0.836191 2.094224e-01 ExtraTreesClassifier
8 0.874307 1.558144e-01 RandomForestClassifier
9 1.288174 3.953037e-01 BaggingClassifier
10 1.884019 4.769589e-01 QuadraticDiscriminantAnalysis
11 2.652161 6.886897e-01 BernoulliNB
12 3.299651 6.427551e-01 GaussianNB 
# Try a logistic regression model and see how it performs in terms of accuracy
kfold = StratifiedKFold(n_splits=5)
cv_scores = cross_val_score(linear_model.LogisticRegressionCV(), X, y, scoring='accuracy', cv=kfold)
cv_scores.mean()
    0.7452268937025035

Choosing Our Algorithms

As we can see from above, there are some pretty poor algorithms for predicting the winner. On the other hand, whilst attaining an accuracy of 74.5% (at the time of writing) may seem like a decent result; we must first establish a baseline to judge our performance on. In this case, we will have two baselines; the proportion of games won by the home team and what the odds predict. If we can beat the odds we have created a very powerful model.

Note that a baseline for the log loss can also be both the odds log loss and randomly guessing. Randomly guessing between two teams attains a log loss of log(2) = 0.69, so we have beaten this result.

Once we establish our baseline, we will choose the top algorithms from above and tune their hyperparameters, as well as automatically selecting the best features to be used in our model.

Defining Our Baseline

As stated above, we must define our baseline so that we have a measure to beat. We will use the proportion of games won by the home team, as well as the proportion of favourites who won, based off the odds. To establish this baseline we will use our feature_df, as this has no dropped rows.

# Find the percentage chance of winning at home in each season.
afl_data = afl_data_cleaning_v2.prepare_afl_data()
afl_data['home_win'] = afl_data.apply(lambda x: 1 if x['f_margin'] > 0 else 0, axis=1)
home_games = afl_data[afl_data['home_game'] == 1]
home_games[["home_win", 'season']].groupby(['season']).mean()
season home_win
2011 0.561856
2012 0.563725
2013 0.561576
2014 0.574257
2015 0.539604
2016 0.606742
2017 0.604061
2018 0.540404 
# Find the proportion of favourites who have won

# Define a function which finds if the odds correctly guessed the response
def find_odds_prediction(a_row):
    if a_row['f_odds'] <= a_row['f_odds_away'] and a_row['home_win'] == 1:
        return 1
    elif a_row['f_odds_away'] < a_row['f_odds'] and a_row['home_win'] == 0:
        return 1
    else:
        return 0

# Define a function which splits our DataFrame so each game is on one row instead of two
def get_df_on_one_line(df):
    cols_to_drop = ['date', 'home_game', 'opponent', 
       'f_opponent_behinds', 'f_opponent_goals', 'f_opponent_points', 'f_points',
       'round', 'venue', 'season']

    home_df = df[df['home_game'] == 1].rename(columns={'team': 'home_team'})
    away_df = df[df['home_game'] == 0].rename(columns={'team': 'away_team'})
    away_df = away_df.drop(columns=cols_to_drop)

    # Rename away_df columns
    away_df_renamed = away_df.rename(columns={col: col + '_away' for col in away_df.columns if col != 'game'})
    merged_df = pd.merge(home_df, away_df_renamed, on='game')

    merged_df['home_win'] = merged_df.f_margin.apply(lambda x: 1 if x > 0 else 0)
    return merged_df

afl_data_one_line = get_df_on_one_line(afl_data)
afl_data_one_line['odds_prediction'] = afl_data_one_line.apply(find_odds_prediction, axis=1)
print('The overall mean accuracy of choosing the favourite based on the odds is {}%'.format(
    round(afl_data_one_line['odds_prediction'].mean() * 100, 2)))
afl_data_one_line[["odds_prediction", 'season']].groupby(['season']).mean()

The overall mean accuracy of choosing the favourite based on the odds is 73.15%
season odds_prediction
2011 0.784615
2012 0.774510
2013 0.748768
2014 0.727723
2015 0.727723
2016 0.713483
2017 0.659898
2018 0.712121 
## Get a baseline log loss score from the odds
afl_data_one_line['odds_home_prob'] = 1 / afl_data_one_line.f_odds
afl_data_one_line['odds_away_prob'] = 1 / afl_data_one_line.f_odds_away

metrics.log_loss(afl_data_one_line.home_win, afl_data_one_line[['odds_away_prob', 'odds_home_prob']])
    0.5375306549682837

We can see that the odds are MUCH more accurate than just choosing the home team to win. We can also see that the mean accuracy of choosing the favourite is around 73%. That means that this is the score we need to beat. Similarly, the log loss of the odds is around 0.5385, whilst our model scores around 0.539 (at the time of writing), without hyperparamter optimisation. Let's choose only the algorithms with log losses below 0.67

chosen_algorithms = best_algos.loc[best_algos['Mean Log Loss'] < 0.67, 'Algorithm'].tolist()
chosen_algorithms
    ['LogisticRegressionCV',
     'LinearDiscriminantAnalysis',
     'GradientBoostingClassifier']

Using Grid Search To Tune Hyperparameters

Now that we have our best models, we can use Grid Search to optimise our hyperparameters. Grid search basically involves searching through a range of different algorithm hyperparameters, and choosing those which result in the best score from some metrics, which in our case is accuracy. Let's do this for the algorithms which have hyperparameters which can be tuned. Note that if you are running this on your own computer it may take up to 10 minutes.

# Define a function which optimises the hyperparameters of our chosen algorithms
def optimise_hyperparameters(train_x, train_y, algorithms, parameters):
    kfold = StratifiedKFold(n_splits=5)
    best_estimators = []

    for alg, params in zip(algorithms, parameters):
        gs = GridSearchCV(alg, param_grid=params, cv=kfold, scoring='neg_log_loss', verbose=1)
        gs.fit(train_x, train_y)
        best_estimators.append(gs.best_estimator_)
    return best_estimators

# Define our parameters to run a grid search over
lr_grid = {
    "C": [0.0001, 0.001, 0.01, 0.05, 0.2, 0.5],
    "solver": ["newton-cg", "lbfgs", "liblinear"]
}

# Add our algorithms and parameters to lists to be used in our function
alg_list = [LogisticRegression()]
param_list = [lr_grid]


# Find the best estimators, then add our other estimators which don't need optimisation
best_estimators = optimise_hyperparameters(X, y, alg_list, param_list)
Fitting 5 folds for each of 18 candidates, totalling 90 fits

[Parallel(n_jobs=1)]: Done  90 out of  90 | elapsed:    5.2s finished

lr_best_params = best_estimators[0].get_params()
lr_best_params
    {'C': 0.01,
     'class_weight': None,
     'dual': False,
     'fit_intercept': True,
     'intercept_scaling': 1,
     'max_iter': 100,
     'multi_class': 'ovr',
     'n_jobs': 1,
     'penalty': 'l2',
     'random_state': None,
     'solver': 'newton-cg',
     'tol': 0.0001,
     'verbose': 0,
     'warm_start': False}

kfold = StratifiedKFold(n_splits=10)
cv_scores = cross_val_score(linear_model.LogisticRegression(**lr_best_params), X, y, scoring='neg_log_loss', cv=kfold)
cv_scores.mean()
    -0.528741673153639

In the next iteration of this tutorial we will also optimise an XGB model and hopefully outperform our logistic regression model.

Creating Predictions for the 2018 Season

Now that we have an optimised logistic regression model, let's see how it performs on predicting the 2018 season.

lr = LogisticRegression(**lr_best_params)
lr.fit(X, y)
final_predictions = lr.predict(test_x)

accuracy = (final_predictions == test_y).mean() * 100

print("Our accuracy in predicting the 2018 season is: {:.2f}%".format(accuracy))

Our accuracy in predicting the 2018 season is: 67.68%

Now let's have a look at all the games which we incorrectly predicted.

game_ids = test_x[(final_predictions != test_y)].game
afl_data_one_line.loc[afl_data_one_line.game.isin(game_ids), ['date', 'home_team', 'opponent', 'f_odds', 'f_odds_away', 'f_margin']]
date home_team opponent f_odds f_odds_away f_margin
1386 2018-03-24 Gold Coast North Melbourne 2.0161 1.9784 16
1388 2018-03-25 Melbourne Geelong 1.7737 2.2755 -3
1391 2018-03-30 North Melbourne St Kilda 3.5769 1.3867 52
1392 2018-03-31 Carlton Gold Coast 1.5992 2.6620 -34
1396 2018-04-01 Western Bulldogs West Coast 1.8044 2.2445 -51
1397 2018-04-01 Sydney Port Adelaide 1.4949 3.0060 -23
1398 2018-04-02 Geelong Hawthorn 1.7597 2.3024 -1
1406 2018-04-08 Western Bulldogs Essendon 3.8560 1.3538 21
1408 2018-04-13 Adelaide Collingwood 1.2048 5.9197 -48
1412 2018-04-14 North Melbourne Carlton 1.5799 2.7228 86
1415 2018-04-15 Hawthorn Melbourne 2.2855 1.7772 67
1417 2018-04-20 Sydney Adelaide 1.2640 4.6929 -10
1420 2018-04-21 Port Adelaide Geelong 1.5053 2.9515 -34
1422 2018-04-22 North Melbourne Hawthorn 2.6170 1.6132 28
1423 2018-04-22 Brisbane Gold Coast 1.7464 2.3277 -5
1425 2018-04-25 Collingwood Essendon 1.8372 2.1754 49
1427 2018-04-28 Geelong Sydney 1.5019 2.9833 -17
1434 2018-04-29 Fremantle West Coast 2.4926 1.6531 -8
1437 2018-05-05 Essendon Hawthorn 2.8430 1.5393 -23
1439 2018-05-05 Sydney North Melbourne 1.2777 4.5690 -2
1444 2018-05-11 Hawthorn Sydney 1.6283 2.5818 -8
1445 2018-05-12 GWS West Coast 1.5425 2.8292 -25
1446 2018-05-12 Carlton Essendon 3.1742 1.4570 13
1452 2018-05-13 Collingwood Geelong 2.4127 1.7040 -21
1455 2018-05-19 North Melbourne GWS 1.5049 2.9752 43
1456 2018-05-19 Essendon Geelong 5.6530 1.2104 34
1460 2018-05-20 Brisbane Hawthorn 3.2891 1.4318 56
1461 2018-05-20 West Coast Richmond 1.9755 2.0154 47
1466 2018-05-26 GWS Essendon 1.4364 3.2652 -35
1467 2018-05-27 Hawthorn West Coast 2.2123 1.8133 -15
... ... ... ... ... ... ...
1483 2018-06-10 Brisbane Essendon 2.3018 1.7543 -22
1485 2018-06-11 Melbourne Collingwood 1.6034 2.6450 -42
1492 2018-06-21 West Coast Essendon 1.3694 3.6843 -28
1493 2018-06-22 Port Adelaide Melbourne 1.7391 2.3426 10
1499 2018-06-29 Western Bulldogs Geelong 6.2067 1.1889 2
1501 2018-06-30 Adelaide West Coast 1.4989 2.9756 10
1504 2018-07-01 Melbourne St Kilda 1.1405 7.7934 -2
1505 2018-07-01 Essendon North Melbourne 2.0993 1.9022 17
1506 2018-07-01 Fremantle Brisbane 1.2914 4.3743 -55
1507 2018-07-05 Sydney Geelong 1.7807 2.2675 -12
1514 2018-07-08 Essendon Collingwood 2.5442 1.6473 -16
1515 2018-07-08 West Coast GWS 1.6790 2.4754 11
1516 2018-07-12 Adelaide Geelong 2.0517 1.9444 15
1518 2018-07-14 Hawthorn Brisbane 1.2281 5.4105 -33
1521 2018-07-14 GWS Richmond 2.7257 1.5765 2
1522 2018-07-15 Collingwood West Coast 1.5600 2.7815 -35
1523 2018-07-15 North Melbourne Sydney 1.9263 2.0647 -6
1524 2018-07-15 Fremantle Port Adelaide 5.9110 1.2047 9
1527 2018-07-21 Sydney Gold Coast 1.0342 27.8520 -24
1529 2018-07-21 Brisbane Adelaide 2.4614 1.6730 -5
1533 2018-07-22 Port Adelaide GWS 1.6480 2.5452 -22
1538 2018-07-28 Gold Coast Carlton 1.3933 3.5296 -35
1546 2018-08-04 Adelaide Port Adelaide 2.0950 1.9135 3
1548 2018-08-04 St Kilda Western Bulldogs 1.6120 2.6368 -35
1555 2018-08-11 Port Adelaide West Coast 1.4187 3.3505 -4
1558 2018-08-12 North Melbourne Western Bulldogs 1.3175 4.1239 -7
1559 2018-08-12 Melbourne Sydney 1.3627 3.7445 -9
1564 2018-08-18 GWS Sydney 1.8478 2.1672 -20
1576 2018-08-26 Brisbane West Coast 2.3068 1.7548 -26
1578 2018-08-26 St Kilda North Melbourne 3.5178 1.3936 -23

Very interesting! Most of the games we got wrong were upsets. Let's have a look at the games we incorrectly predicted that weren't upsets.

(afl_data_one_line.loc[afl_data_one_line.game.isin(game_ids), ['date', 'home_team', 'opponent', 'f_odds', 'f_odds_away', 'f_margin']]
    .assign(home_favourite=lambda df: df.apply(lambda row: 1 if row.f_odds < row.f_odds_away else 0, axis=1))
    .assign(upset=lambda df: df.apply(lambda row: 1 if row.home_favourite == 1 and row.f_margin < 0 else 
                                      (1 if row.home_favourite == 0 and row.f_margin > 0 else 0), axis=1))
    .query('upset == 0'))
date home_team opponent f_odds f_odds_away f_margin home_favourite upset
1412 2018-04-14 North Melbourne Carlton 1.5799 2.7228 86 1 0
1425 2018-04-25 Collingwood Essendon 1.8372 2.1754 49 1 0
1434 2018-04-29 Fremantle West Coast 2.4926 1.6531 -8 0 0
1437 2018-05-05 Essendon Hawthorn 2.8430 1.5393 -23 0 0
1452 2018-05-13 Collingwood Geelong 2.4127 1.7040 -21 0 0
1455 2018-05-19 North Melbourne GWS 1.5049 2.9752 43 1 0
1461 2018-05-20 West Coast Richmond 1.9755 2.0154 47 1 0
1467 2018-05-27 Hawthorn West Coast 2.2123 1.8133 -15 0 0
1479 2018-06-08 Port Adelaide Richmond 1.7422 2.3420 14 1 0
1483 2018-06-10 Brisbane Essendon 2.3018 1.7543 -22 0 0
1493 2018-06-22 Port Adelaide Melbourne 1.7391 2.3426 10 1 0
1501 2018-06-30 Adelaide West Coast 1.4989 2.9756 10 1 0
1514 2018-07-08 Essendon Collingwood 2.5442 1.6473 -16 0 0
1515 2018-07-08 West Coast GWS 1.6790 2.4754 11 1 0
1529 2018-07-21 Brisbane Adelaide 2.4614 1.6730 -5 0 0
1576 2018-08-26 Brisbane West Coast 2.3068 1.7548 -26 0 0
1578 2018-08-26 St Kilda North Melbourne 3.5178 1.3936 -23 0 0

Let's now look at our model's log loss for the 2018 season compared to the odds.

predictions_probs = lr.predict_proba(test_x)

metrics.log_loss(test_y, predictions_probs)
    0.584824211055384

test_x_unscaled = feature_df.loc[feature_df.season == 2018, ['game'] + feature_columns]

metrics.log_loss(test_y, test_x_unscaled[['f_current_odds_prob_away', 'f_current_odds_prob']])
    0.5545776633924343

So whilst our model performs decently, it doesn't beat the odds in terms of log loss. That's okay, it's still a decent start. In future iterations we can implement other algorithms and create new features which may improve performance.

Next Steps

Now that we have a model up and running, the next steps are to implement the model on a week to week basis. In the next tutorial we will be predicting the 2018 round of footy.